Graduate College of Drexel University
Critical thinking versus problem solving.
Many people lump critical thinking and problem-solving together into one basket, and while there are similarities, there are also distinct differences. Critical thinking utilizes analysis, reflection, evaluation, interpretation, and inference to synthesize information that is obtained through reading, observing, communicating, or experience to answer the following questions:
- Is this information credible?
- Is the purveyor of the information credible?
- What is the issue?
- How do I feel about this information and how will it inform my decisions?
- Where does this information lead me?
Problem-solving uses many of the same skills, such as observing, analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting, but it takes the process a step further to identify obstacles and then to strategically map out a set of solutions to solve the problem.
So, how can you develop these skills to be a better critical thinker and a better problem solver? You cannot train yourself to be a critical thinker or a problem solver overnight; you should start slow. Work on one sub-skill at a time. Let’s look at each of these sub-skills:
Regardless of position, you can develop analytical skills by analyzing issues, programs, experiences, etc. to break them down into easier to digest chunks to gain a better or deeper understanding. To do this:
- Be more observant
- Ask questions such as who, what, where, when, how, and why
- Learn as much as possible about the given topic
- Map out the topic or issue to gain a visual understanding
- Figure out the difference between fact and opinion
Learning to be reflective is something you can do with nearly every aspect of your professional and personal life. Start a journal and continually ask yourself questions and explore the answers honestly. This experience will open your mind to reflection, which is the process by which you look at your role in a given situation or experience. The best part of journaling – you can go back and re-read and see your progress over time. To begin the process:
- Ask yourself why you did something or reacted in a certain way
- Be open to look at yourself through an honest and critical lens
- Explore your experience through writing
- Ask trusted colleagues for feedback on your findings
We evaluate things all the time without realizing it – products, services, etc. Begin by being aware of this act. Similar to deepening your analysis skills, you can evaluate any issue, topic, program, procedure, policy, etc. through the means listed below to enhance your evaluation skills.
- Compare different issues, topics, programs, etc. – how are they similar, different?
- Look for trends
- Look for conflicts or barriers
- Don’t make assumptions, ask questions to gather information
Interpretation
The act of interpreting something is using a combination of analytical and evaluation skills, but it is a little more difficult to learn on your own. It is best to partner with someone to hone these skills – a trusted colleague or even a mentor, with whom you can put the following into practice.
- Understand your own biases or opinions
- Understand any cultural input, barriers, etc.
- Look at the situation, experience, issue, topic, etc. through different lenses
- Educate yourself about the situation, experience, issue, topic, etc.
- Synthesize the information, data, etc. to develop a deeper understanding
One of the best ways to begin to develop strategic thinking skills is to do some long-range planning. You can start with your own professional goals, think about short-term goals and how those will help you get from point A to point B, and more importantly, how they lay the groundwork for longer-range goals. Keep practicing by employing these tactics.
- Obtain the perspective of others & brainstorm
- Educate yourself about the situation, experience, issue, topic, etc.
- Be forward-thinking in both the short-term and the long-term
- Think about all parties involved and how decisions, etc. will impact them
- Be creative and innovative
We utilize many of these skills each day, even multiple times a day; however, often we do it without realizing it. The first step to enhancing your critical thinking and problem solving skills is to think about them, become aware of them, then you can actively practice to improve them. Critical thinking and problem-solving are two important “soft” or essential skills hiring managers are looking for. According to a Linkedin survey, 57% of business leaders say soft skills are now more important than hard skills. Abby Guthrie, a communications team leader at Findcourses.com argues, “Every soft skill that you develop will be something you will eventually draw on in your career.” These skills are anything but soft, they are essential to your career.
Anne Converse Willkomm Assistant Clinical Professor Department Head of Graduate Studies Goodwin College Drexel University Sources:
Skills You Need
What is the relationship between critical thinking and problem solving
What is the relationship between critical thinking and problem solving
In fact, critical thinking and problem-solving go hand-in-hand. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and data to solve problems effectively. But with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting, and defending your solution. Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve: Your roommate was upset and said some unkind words to you, which put a crimp in your relationship. We know that critical thinking skills are fundamental to problem-solving. And we know that there are other skills that help us solve problems, skills that aren’t critical thinking skills. Problem solving involves a wide array of techniques and attacks, some of which fall under critical thinking, and some which don’t. Problem solving is about solving, correcting or relieving a condition that interferes with achieving normal or desired results. Problem solving may require critical thinking in acquiring the information needed to solve a problem.
Critical thinking is valuable in any situation where information should be considered and evaluated. Another aspect of the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving is emotional intelligence. In general, it refers to the recognition of both positive and negative feelings of all people, the separation of feelings from facts, and the competence in understanding one’s mood, gestures, temperament, and purposes in the process of interaction (Shahbazi et al., 2018). Problem Solving There is a difference between Critical Thinking and Problem Solving. Critical Thinking is an intentional and reflective way of looking at things or circumstances, while Problem Solving focuses on a specific situation. 18. Let’s face it! In the business world, we will always have problems that need to be solved. 19. Nurses was ±25,70, average total problem solving skills scores were ±.
It was determined that there was a significantly moderate relationship between the nurses’ critical thinking disposition and their problem solving skills (r=, p).There was a statistically significant difference between the age of the Wade (1995) identifies eight characteristics of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, defining a problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. Dealing with ambiguity is also seen by Strohm & Baukus (1995) as an essential part of critical thinking, “Ambiguity and doubt serve a critical-thinking function and are a necessary and even
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Relationship Between Critical Thinking, Problem-Solving, Decision-Making, and Stress Management in Nursing
In nursing practice, many care providers and leaders have to encounter high stress levels due to the nature of their work. Some patients may have critical conditions, decisions may be rather difficult, and there are a lot of situations that require increased attention and efforts. Therefore, leaders should be aware of critical thinking as a key technique to decision-making and problem-solving, so that they can apply their skills in practice and train the staff members.
While all the nurses and nurse leaders are educated on resolving complicated personal and professional issues, problem-solving is the key strategy they employ. Shahbazi, Heidari, Sureshjani, and Rezaei (2018) state that the two mentioned concepts are interconnected: not only creative thinking contributes to decision-making but also vice versa. The mentioned scholars note that the participants of their study reported the improvement of such skills as information organization, observation, determination, and analysis. Accordingly, one may assume that the application of creative thinking facilitates the mentioned skills in nursing practice, which can be used by nurse leaders. One of the key responsibilities of the leader is to make sure that his or her employees are comfortable with their work, and that the stress they experience is not serious, as mentioned by Shahbazi et al. (2018). In case the team members feel extreme tension or burnout, critical thinking should be used by their leader to help them. In particular, the initial evaluation of stress causes and further identification of its relief techniques should be identified.
Another aspect of the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving is emotional intelligence. In general, it refers to the recognition of both positive and negative feelings of all people, the separation of feelings from facts, and the competence in understanding one’s mood, gestures, temperament, and purposes in the process of interaction (Shahbazi et al., 2018). In terms of leadership in the nursing area, the ability to distinguish and fairly discuss one’s emotions as well as prevent panic and adverse feelings, such as jealousy, anger, irritation, anger is a significant point of emotional intelligence. Heidari and Shahbazi (2016) emphasize that emergency medical personnel education regarding the discussed concept is useful as it enhances their skills and alleviates stress. The study also clarifies that the current level of critical thinking needs to be increased in emergency nurses.
Speaking of legal implications, one should take into account that all care settings may have their specific regulations that determine management approaches and care strategies. Even though the national laws exist, it is still necessary to pay attention to the local requirements while training nurses on critical thinking or applying it to reduce stress (Martyn, Terwijn, Kek, & Huijser, 2014). Time management also refers to the area that may benefit from the identified relationship since the appropriate allocation of time for individual and group tasks is significant for avoiding lateness and misunderstanding. The ethical implications are associated with the greater awareness of one or another situation that needs to be considered adequately (Butts & Rich, 2019). In other words, the application of critical thinking to decision-making in such cases makes them more elaborate due to logical reasoning. To conclude, one should state that there is an evident link between decision-making, stress management, and critical thinking, while the latter is beneficial for nurse training as well as the working framework for nurse leaders.
Butts, J. B., & Rich, K. L. (2019). Nursing ethics (5th ed.). New York, NY: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Heidari, M., & Shahbazi, S. (2016). Effect of training problem-solving skill on decision-making and critical thinking of personnel at medical emergencies. International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science , 6 (4), 182-187.
Martyn, J., Terwijn, R., Kek, M. Y., & Huijser, H. (2014). Exploring the relationships between teaching, approaches to learning and critical thinking in a problem-based learning foundation nursing course. Nurse Education Today , 34 (5), 829-835.
Shahbazi, S., Heidari, M., Sureshjani, E. H., & Rezaei, P. (2018). Effects of problem-solving skill training on emotional intelligence of nursing students: An experimental study. Journal of Education and Health Promotion , 7 , 156-164.
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Determine the relationship between the disposition of critical thinking and the perception about problem solving skills ☆.
The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between the disposition of critical thinking and the perception about problem solving skills of the students. In descriptive studies correlational model was used. Disposition of critical thinking points data was collected in this study by using the “The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory” developed by Facione, Facione and Giancarlo(1988) and the perceptions about Problem Solving Skills data was collected by using the problem solving skills inventory adapted into Turkish by Sahin, Sahin and Heppner(1993). Based on the findings of the study, it was revealed that there was a moderate, positive and significant relationship between pre-service music teachers’ disposition of critical thinking and perceptions about problem solving.
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The Relationship Between Scientific Method & Critical Thinking
What Is the Function of the Hypothesis?
Critical thinking, that is the mind’s ability to analyze claims about the world, is the intellectual basis of the scientific method. The scientific method can be viewed as an extensive, structured mode of critical thinking that involves hypothesis, experimentation and conclusion.
Critical Thinking
Broadly speaking, critical thinking is any analytical thought aimed at determining the validity of a specific claim. It can be as simple as a nine-year-old questioning a parent’s claim that Santa Claus exists, or as complex as physicists questioning the relativity of space and time. Critical thinking is the point when the mind turns in opposition to an accepted truth and begins analyzing its underlying premises. As American philosopher John Dewey said, it is the “active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends.”
Critical thinking initiates the act of hypothesis. In the scientific method, the hypothesis is the initial supposition, or theoretical claim about the world, based on questions and observations. If critical thinking asks the question, then the hypothesis is the best attempt at the time to answer the question using observable phenomenon. For example, an astrophysicist may question existing theories of black holes based on his own observation. He may posit a contrary hypothesis, arguing black holes actually produce white light. It is not a final conclusion, however, as the scientific method requires specific forms of verification.
Experimentation
The scientific method uses formal experimentation to analyze any hypothesis. The rigorous and specific methodology of experimentation is designed to gather unbiased empirical evidence that either supports or contradicts a given claim. Controlled variables are used to provide an objective basis of comparison. For example, researchers studying the effects of a certain drug may provide half the test population with a placebo pill and the other half with the real drug. The effects of the real drug can then be assessed relative to the control group.
In the scientific method, conclusions are drawn only after tested, verifiable evidence supports them. Even then, conclusions are subject to peer review and often retested before general consensus is reached. Thus, what begins as an act of critical thinking becomes, in the scientific method, a complex process of testing the validity of a claim. English philosopher Francis Bacon put it this way: “If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties.”
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Scott Neuffer is an award-winning journalist and writer who lives in Nevada. He holds a bachelor's degree in English and spent five years as an education and business reporter for Sierra Nevada Media Group. His first collection of short stories, "Scars of the New Order," was published in 2014.
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The Relationship Between Critical Thinking And Decision Making
Filed Under: Essays Tagged With: reasoning
Today’s global marketplace requires leaders that can successfully transform their organizations. In the corporate world, innovative problem solving, critical analytical thought and sound decision-making key the success and dominance of leaders and organizations. This paper examines the relationship between critical thinking and the decision-making process, explains the course textbook position, and relates how both processes apply to the author’s workplace.
Critical thinking involves the ability to analyze and assess information gathered through observations, reasoning, discussions with others, reflection or experience. This disciplined analysis guides critical thinkers to construct rational beliefs or substantiated opinions or to take actions. McCall and Kaplan (2001) define critical thinking in terms of three key points: the “awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions, [the] ability to ask and answer critical questions at appropriate times, and [a] desire to actively use the critical questions.” This definition, though, is not a consensus definition, nor is it widely accepted.
Despite a massive body of research on critical thinking, no single definition exists. Commonly, definitions from noted scholars appear diametrically opposed. Robert Ennis (1995) defines critical thinking as “reasonable and reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do.” In contrast, John McPeck defines critical thinking in Critical Thinking and Education (1981) as the “skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective skepticism within the context of a discipline and the knowledge within a given field.” These two vastly different definitions nonetheless highlight two important components of critical thinking. The first component involves the abilities and skills relevant to the proper understanding and evaluations of reasons, claims, and arguments. Both scholars characterize the second component as a propensity to apply critical thinking skills. The definitions provided by Ennis and McPeck also hinge on three key concepts in critical thinking analysis. Both use similar words: reason, reflection, and focus. The commonality in Ennis and McPeck’s definitions provides three criteria for critical thinkers: reason, evaluation and focus.
The Essay on Critical Thinking Discussion and Summary
I don’t know if there is a universal correct definition of critical thinking. I think this a very individualistic tool used by humans to break down different problems and situations and the best way to go about coming up with the best resolution in a non-biased manner. Gathering a thought process that is reasonable and with demeanor. This is simply how I would personally define critical ...
Managers in today’s workplace, including at ImageStream, must shoulder a great deal of the responsibility for decision making. Since many issues in a rapidly changing market fall outside of established rules or well-known situations, clear and accurate thinking about these issues takes on added importance. Managers effectively employing critical thought processes improve decision-making, enhance innovation and create strong, open lines of communication with peers and subordinates.
Most issues requiring critical thought often have more than a single potential solution or ultimate position. Selecting the best solution or position based on the outcome of critical thinking processes constitutes effective decision-making. If critical thinking identifies and combines information and potential solutions, decision-making processes help critical thinkers arrive at a single solution or idea. Decision-making represents a necessary and logical end to the critical thinking process.
McCall and Kaplan outline six steps to critical thinking and decision-making (McCall and Kaplan, 2001):
1) Define and isolate a problem
2) Gather information
3) Outline possible solutions
The Essay on Critical Thinking Making Decision Decisions
Critical Thinking and Decision Making Critical thinking and decision-making are two valuable issues, which enable us to address our concerns in our daily lives in a more practical fashion. Critical thinking can be understood as a way of becoming aware of, and taking control of our own thinking processes in order to think more effectively. Critical Thinking is about becoming a better thinker in ...
4) Establish metrics or measures for a solution
5) Outline resources and methods available to achieve the standards
6) Choose a course of action
The six step model follows many similar critical thinking/decision-making processes used by varying organizations. The U.S. Army has distilled the process into a Task, Conditions, Standards model. A key focus of officer training is achieving “tactical and technical competence for specific tasks, conditions and standards.” The Army develops tasks (defining and isolating a problem), conditions (gathering information, outlining resources and methods) and standards (metric or measures) as part of a “deliberate, continuous, sequential and progressive” improvement process (Department of the Army, 2002).
ImageStream recognizes the need for a clear, concise critical thinking and decision-making process, and encourages managers to foster and lead a collaborative critical thought process in day-to-day operations. According to Johnson & Johnson (1994), leaders should follow a prescribed sequence of phases. ImageStream uses this sequence to manage critical thought processes, proactively resolve conflicts and increase the likelihood of successful decisions, especially in complex situations. After defining a task, the company follows these phases:
1.Collect data. Obtaining facts is critical. ImageStream encourages decision makers to seek information and also analyze the contributions of all parties objectively.
2.Probe. By asking involving questions, decision makers encourage parties to communicate and gain a better understanding of various viewpoints.
3.Save face. A key part of collaborative critical thought processes, leaders must avoid emotional responses from themselves and participants in the process. Humiliating or embarrassing others is counterproductive and can lead to a less-than-thorough analysis of the task.
4.Discover common ground. In order to arrive at a single solution, decision makers must combine various viewpoints, facts and potential courses of action. Discovering and highlighting common ground helps direct the process toward a final decision.
The Term Paper on Critical and Creative Thinking 4
INTRODUCTION What is thinking? Basically, thinking is one way for human to practice the act or exercise their intellectual or process of thought. In other way, thinking can also mean as a way of reasoning and judgment. In easier words, thinking is the active process by which human develops by understandings of us, others and our world. The process of thinking enables us to solve problems, ...
5.Reinforce. ImageStream encourages managers to reinforce the key points and focus discussion on improving the common positions. By supporting common ground, leaders drive discussion toward a mutually agreeable resolution. Critical thinking teams use the data collected in phase one to assess the viability of the emerging solutions.
6.Negotiate. In this phase, the critical thinkers vet the solutions and formulate clear, concise solutions for selection by the decision maker or makers.
7.Solidify adjustments. Leaders should review and confirm areas where the team reaches agreement. This is the final step in securing the approval of all team members and helps to solidify the final collaborative decision.
These methods and strategies are key components in ImageStream’s collective portfolio of creative thinking, critical thinking and decision making skills. The company and its leaders combine an understanding of these important processes with a strategy that minimizes conflict and promotes detailed critical thought and efficient, informed decisions. This strategy leverages the collective critical and creative thinking skills of workplace teams to produce opportunity for ImageStream.
Ennis, R. (1995).
Critical thinking and subject specificity: Clarification and needed research. Educational Researcher, 18, 75-81.
Headquarters, Department of the Army. (2002).
FM 7-0: Training the Force. Washington D.C.: Department of the Army.
Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, F. P. (1994).
Joining Together Group Theory and Group Skills. Boston: Pearson Allyn & Beacon.
McCall, M. W., & Kaplan, R. E. (2001).
Whatever It Takes – The Realities of Managerial Decision Making (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
McPeck, J. (1981).
Critical Thinking and Education. New York: St. Martins.
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The relationship between critical thinking and problem solving: A metaanalysis with correlational studies
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This study aimed to examine the relationship (direction and magnitude) between critical thinking and problem solving by combining the results of the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 via meta-analysis. In this study, which is a metaanalysis study, PRISMA guidelines were followed. The studies obtained after searching the relevant literature through some electronic databases using search patterns were reviewed by two researchers in terms of inclusion criteria and 43 studies were included. Since more than one data were shared in some of these studies, meta-analysis was carried out with 49 data. The mean effect size of the relationship between critical thinking and problem solving was 0.483 under random effects model which indicated that there was a medium relationship between critical thinking and problem solving. This effect size did not differ according to subgroups of region, critical thinking type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type. The results obtained in this study are confirmed by theoretical background regarding critical thinking and problem solving and previous studies.
Keywords: Critical thinking, problem solving, meta-analysis, correlation, higher-order thinking skills.
Bu meta-analiz çalışmasının amacı 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 tarihleri arasında yapılmış çalışmaların sonuçlarını birleştirerek, eleştirel düşünme ile problem çözme arasındaki ilişkiyi (yön ve büyüklük) araştırmaktır. Arama terimlerini kullanarak bazı elektronik veri tabanları aracılığıyla ilgili literatürün araştırılmasının ardından elde edilen çalışmalar dahil edilme ölçütleri açısından iki farklı araştırmacı tarafından incelenmiş ve analize 43 çalışma dahil edilmiştir. Bu çalışmaların bazılarında birden fazla veri paylaşıldığı için, meta-analiz 49 veri ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Eleştirel düşünme ve problem çözme arasındaki ilişkinin etki büyüklüğü 0.483 olarak bulunmuştur ve bu değer eleştirel düşünme ile problem çözme arasında orta düzeyde bir ilişkinin olduğunu göstermektedir. Elde edilen bu etki büyüklüğü çalışmanın yapıldığı bölge, eleştirel düşünme türü, sınıf düzeyi, alan ve yayın türü alt gruplarına göre farklılaşmamaktadır. Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen sonuçlar, eleştirel düşünme ve problem çözmeye ilişkin teorik alt yapıyla ve geçmiş çalışmaların sonuçlarıyla örtüşmektedir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Eleştirel düşünme, problem çözme, meta-analiz, korelasyon, üst düzey düşünme becerileri.
1 I Introduction
Today, the main purpose of education is no longer to have individuals with basic knowledge, but to have individuals who can think effectively and are independent learners (Kaeppel, 2021). Higher order thinking skills, one of the 21st century skills (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2009), correspond to analyze, evaluate and create levels of the revised Bloom taxonomy and allow the individual to interpret information, adapt it to new cases, analyze it and create something original by going beyond the routine (Anderson et al., 2001). In fact, every human being has the ability to think at a basic level by nature and this is the most basic feature of the individual. However, people with basic thinking skills will fail to interpret their environment and solve problems, and if the individual does not have higher order thinking skills, this thinking process will be biased, incomplete and erroneous (Nosich, 2011). Therefore, higher order thinking skills enable the individual to think effectively, to have the skills of this century and to keep up with the developments and innovations occurred in this age. Besides, the individual with higher order thinking skills can think more effectively, and in this thinking process, the individual has an active role, takes responsibilities and becomes a person who researches, solves problems, can make logical decisions and produce original products. For this reason, one of the primary purposes of education is to improve individuals' thinking skills in the 21st century (Al-Zou'bi, 2021; Van Gelder, 2005).
Paul (1990) defines critical thinking (CT) as a mode of thinking about any subject or content in which the individual evaluates whether the information is valid, logical and correct or whether the result obtained is reasonable. Beyer (1995) defines CT as a process of making a judgment about the quality of knowledge. Therefore, it is possible to consider CT as a careful and rational judgment or decision-making process (Facione, 1990). This process includes the evaluation of information, claims or judgments according to certain standards (Facione, 1998). According to Halpern (2003), CT is the employing necessary cognitive skills and strategies which increase the possibility of reaching desired results. In other words, CT can be seen as cognitive skills and strategies that individuals use in solving problems (Sternberg, 1999a). Some of these cognitive skills and strategies are questioning, problem solving (PS) (Watson & Glaser, 1964), analysis, evaluation, inference, reaching a conclusion (Facione, 2000), decision making (Halpern, 2003), synthesis, defining and solving the problem, reaching a conclusion and evaluating the results (Angelo, 1995). The process in which these strategies and cognitive skills are used is a purposeful, criteria-based and self-regulative process (Facione, 2000; Lipman, 1988). In this process, which is a logical thinking process (Nosich 2011), individuals take responsibility, query, understand the logic of the questions, reach conclusions and believe in the results after evaluating them (Lipman, 1988; Nosich, 2011).
CT is directly related to many thinking skills. CT, which is a multifaceted thinking process, includes different thinking skills depending on the situation (Bittner & Tobin, 1998). However, although CT includes different thinking skills, it is not totally same with these thinking skills. CT, which can be considered as an umbrella for other thinking skills (Bittner & Tobin, 1998), is not just a decision-making skill, although it includes decisionmaking. In addition, although it includes the stages of PS, it is not just about PS skills. Therefore, even if it includes different thinking skills in different problem situations, it is wrong to limit CT to a single thinking skill. On the other hand, other thinking skills also include CT in their own processes. For example, creative thinking skill can be employed in the CT process, and CT skills are used in the evaluation of the product or idea that emerges in the creative thinking process (Sternberg, 1999b).
CRITICAL THINKING and PROBLEM SOLVING
When problem is defined as the difference between the existing and the desired state or the difficulties need to be overcame by individuals in the journey of reaching this desired situation (Bransford & Stein, 1993), PS can be seen as the work of bringing out the most useful solutions to eliminate these difficulties/problems faced by individuals (Morgan et al., 2017). PS, which is a complex cognitive skill, involves skills such as reasoning and establishing cause and effect relationships (Acikgoz, 2016). PS can also be defined as the cognitive activities used by individuals to reach a certain aim (Anderson, 1993) such as realizing the problem, examining the problem in all its aspects, collecting information and data regarding the solution, generating alternative solutions, evaluating alternatives and choosing the best solution (Kaya, 2008).
While the aim of PS is moving from an undesired situation to a better one, the main purpose of CT is not only to find a solution to a problem, but to collect evidence to defend thoughts, claims and judgments, to evaluate the source of the collected evidence and to present it logically (Hickman, 1993). Therefore, while PS aims to solve the problem encountered, CT is not only about this and goes beyond PS (Meyers, 1998). While the result is important in PS, CT focuses on the process rather than the result. CT is needed during the whole PS process. According to Paul and Elder (2001), CT skills are employed in defining the problem, revealing the reasons and assumptions behind it, comparing different ideas on its solution, collecting information, data and evidence to reach a solution, and evaluating the source of this information, data and evidence. According to Fisher (2005), both CT and creative thinking skills are employed in the PS process. CT skills are needed in defining the elements of the problem, analyzing the problem rationally, comparing the alternatives to solve the problem and selecting the most appropriate and useful one. In short, while PS deals with a solution for a problem, CT focuses on all stages of the process and also includes evaluating the solutions which appear at the end of PS process.
Regarding the existent literature, there are many studies which suggest that CT is significantly related to PS (Irwanto et al., 2018; Kim & Choi, 2014; Kousar & Afzal, 2021; Kutluca, 2018; Memduhoglu & Kele§, 2016; Shim et al., 2019; Tiimkaya et al., 2009). On the contrary, there are also other studies which concluded that CT is not significantly related to PS (Demiral, 2019; Friedel et al., 2008; Guliinay, 2016; Junsay, 2016). Therefore, it is possible to say that studies on these issues have revealed some ambiguous results. In addition, the studies have yielded different results regarding the magnitude of the significant relationships found between CT and PS. So, meta-analysis studies on the relationship between CT and PS can offer a holistic portrait of the association between these thinking skills because meta-analysis studies allow the knowledge accumulated in a specific area to be interpreted in a consistent way by combining the results of previous research conducted by diverse people (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). This study aimed to investigate the relationship (direction and magnitude) between CT and PS by combining the results of the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 via meta-analysis. To this end, answer to the following question was sought for:
1. What is the relationship (direction and magnitude) between CT and PS skills and does this relationship vary by different variables?
In this study, which is a meta-analysis study, PRISMA guidelines proposed by Moher et al. (2009) were followed.
COLLECTION of STUDIES and INCLUSION and EXCLUSION CRITERIA
Studies found after literature review should be involved in the analysis in consideration of certain criteria (Springer et al., 1999). However, the criteria need to be set very carefully as qualities of the collected studies can decrease provided that the criteria are too broad while very few studies may be collected which may prevent the generalizability of the results if the criteria are too strict. Accordingly, inclusion criteria were determined firstly. Then, the studies were reviewed in terms of inclusion criteria by two different researchers.
According to Rosenthal (1979), one of the main problems in meta-analysis studies is publication bias (PB). Including only studies published in academic journals in meta-analysis is an important problem that may cause PB, since studies that have reached a significant difference or relationship results have more chance to be published in the academic journals than the others which concluded non-significant results (Rothstein et al., 2005). Therefore, including as many and different types of studies as possible in meta-analysis can prevent this problem that may cause PB and prevent obtaining more reliable and valid results. For this reason, it was aimed to include all studies that have focused on the relation between CT and PS and reported necessary statistical data in the analysis. So, studies published in the research journals, conference papers, book chapters and unpublished postgraduate theses are involved in the analysis.
The criteria which were used in order to examine the studies before including the meta-analysis can be seen below:
1. The study must be carried out between 01.01.2015 and 30.11.2020.
2. The study must be a correlational one which examines the relationship between CT and PS.
3. The measurement tools that have sufficient psychometric properties must be used in the studies.
4. The study must provide enough statistical data to estimate the ES.
In order to reach studies investigating the relationship between CT and PS, some online databases, namely, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, ULAKBIM and Turkish National Thesis Center were searched with "critical thinking" OR "critical thinking skills" OR "critical thinking disposition" AND "problem solving" OR "problem solving skills" search pattern in Turkish and English from 15.11.2020 to 30.11.2020.
The literature review resulted in 9296 studies in total. Firstly, the studies were investigated through their titles and abstracts and 9106 studies were eliminated due to some reasons (e.g., duplicates, not Turkish or English etc.) Then, 190 studies were reviewed by two researchers and 147 of them were excluded due to some reasons (e.g., not a correlation one, did not report the necessary statistical data, etc.). Finally, 43 studies were included in the analysis. Since more than one data were shared in some of these studies, meta-analysis was conducted with 49 data (from 43 unique studies). Flow diagram for literature review can be seen in Figure 1.
Then, the bibliographies of the collected studies were examined in detail and it was tried to reach other studies. However, no study that can be included in the analysis has been found. In short, total sample number of the studies included in meta-analysis was 11829.
CODING of STUDIES
The studies were coded with a coding form. The form contains information such as year of the study, name of the study, publication type (article, thesis, conference paper), author(s), sample characteristics, countries where the study was carried out, the measurement tool used and the data required for ES calculations. The studies involved in the analysis were coded by two independent people (author of this study and a second person who has meta-analysis experience). Full consistency was seen between the coders (r=1.00).
DATA ANALYSIS and INTERPRETATION
The ES was calculated using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) package program. The Pearson correlation coefficient and sample size information were used to calculate the ES. While calculating the ES, the Pearson correlation coefficient was first converted to Fisher's Z, analyses were made and then it was converted back to Pearson correlation coefficient. The confidence interval for the calculations was determined as 95% in this study. Upon deciding the level of ESs, less than 0.10, between 0.11 and 0.30, between 0.31 and 0.50, greater than 0.51 were adopted to be very weak, weak, medium and strong, respectively (Cohen et al., 2007).
PB, which is an important problem for the validity of the meta-analysis studies (Kromrey et al., 2006; Rothstein et al., 2005), should be checked before calculating the ES. In this study, funnel plot, Rosenthal's fail-safe N test, Duval and Tweedie's Trim and Fill, and Egger's regression intercept methods were used to check the PB.
According to Hedges and Olkin (1985), Q statistics can be used to investigate heterogeneity. Q value greater than the critical limit in X2 table shows heterogeneity among studies. In addition, the I2 value which may have values between 0% (indicates no heterogeneity) to 100% (indicates high-level heterogeneity) can also be used in checking heterogeneity (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006). Therefore, in this study, in order to decide whether there is heterogeneity or not, the obtained Q and I2 values were examined.
Sub-group analyses were conducted according to sub-groups of region where the study was conducted, CT type (disposition or skill), level of schooling (primary school, secondary school, etc.), discipline (education, science etc.) and publication type (published or unpublished) using Analog ANOVA. With Analog ANOVA, we can compute various Q values such as between-group (Qb), within-group (Qw), and total (Qtotal). Qb value can be used to determine if the moderator variable is a real moderator or not (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). QB value which is significant and less than the critical limit in X2 table indicates that mean ESs vary between categories of the moderator variables.
3 | Findings
RESULTS on PUBLICATION BIAS
Funnel plot and trim-and-fill methods were employed to check the PB. The funnel plot was shown in Figure
Empty circles in the funnel plots symbolize the studies involved in meta-analysis and the black ones refer to the imaginary studies which must be involved to eliminate PB totally (Duval & Tweedie, 2000). Also, symmetrically distributed funnel plot indicates no PB. As presented in Figure 2, we can say that the funnel plot seems symmetric. Furthermore, trim-and-fill method showed that only seven studies must be included to eliminate the PB totally. Given the ESs were computed (49) in this study, it can be said that these imaginary studies can be neglected. Also, the fail-safe N number (33919) was much greater than the number (255) calculated using the formula of 5k+10 (Fragkos et al., 2014). Besides, Egger's intercept was 0.596 [95% CI=-3.233^t.426], p=0.755. Overall, we can say that there was no PB for this current study.
RESULTS on the RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRITICAL THINKING and PROBLEM SOLVING
As seen in Table 1, in the random effects model, the ES was 0.483 [95%CI=0.403-0.556] with a standard error of 0.051. Also, the ES was 0.475 [95%CI=0.460-0.488] with a standard error of 0.009 in the fixed effects model. The data were also tested for heterogeneity and Q(df=48) value was found as 1381.45 (p<0.05). The obtained Q value was higher than the critical limit in X2 table (df=48, X2(0.o5)=65.171). Therefore, it can be said that there was heterogeneity among the studies. Also, as seen in Table 1, the calculated I2 value (%96.52) showed a high level of heterogeneity. So, in this study, ES was calculated with random effects model. Indeed, as it is really hard to have homogeneity among the studies conducted in disciplines related to social sciences, meta-analysis with the studies from social sciences should always be conducted with random effects model (Schmidt & Hunter, 2015; Borenstein et al., 2009). The mean ES was calculated as 0.483 according to random effects model. Based on Cohen et al.'s (2007) benchmarks, this value showed that there was a medium and positive relationship between CT and PS.
According to the forest plot, Erdem and Yazicioglu's (2015) study had the largest effect on the mean ES while Junsay's (2016) and Toharudin's (2015) studies had the smallest effect. Besides, out of 49 ESs, only three were negative. So it can be said that there was a positive relationship between CT and PS.
RESULTS on the SUB-GROUP ANALYSES
As it can be seen in Table 2, the heterogeneity value of the sub-group of region (QB=0.913; p>0.05), CT type (Qb=3.340; p>0.05), level of schooling (QB=5.062; p>0.05), discipline (QB=1.650; p>0.05) and publication type (Qb=1.279; p>0.05) were less than the X2 table critical values. So, we can say that there was not a statistically significant difference between the categories of the moderator variables. In other words, the magnitude of the relationship between CT and PS did not differ according to region, CT type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type.
4 | Discussion & Conclusion
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship (direction and magnitude) between CT and PS. For this purpose, the findings of the previous studies that are about the relationship between CT and PS were analyzed with meta-analysis method. After literature review, 43 studies that met the criteria to be included in the study were found and meta-analysis was carried out with 49 data (from 43 unique studies).
The ES of the association between CT and PS was found to be 0.483 and this ES did not differ according to sub-groups of region, CT type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type. Based on the views in the literature which state that CT and PS skills are closely related (Hickman, 1993; Fisher, 2005), we can say that a medium and positive relation between CT and PS is an expected result. According to MacPherson (1997) individuals' CT skills and dispositions are important in order to develop PS skills. In addition, CT dispositions are effective in PS activities (Barile, 2003) and CT skills are used while solving problems (Pereira, 2014). So, results of this study are confirmed by the previous research. Also, it is possible to find other studies concluding trainings designed to develop CT also improved PS (I§iklar & Abah Oztiirk, 2022; Kanbay & Okanli, 2017; Shim et al., 2019). Therefore, the fact that activities designed to develop CT improve both CT and PS support the existence of a strong relationship between these higher-order thinking skills. In their study which aims to examine the relationships among CT dispositions, metacognitive awareness, and PS of students using structural equation model, Boran and Karakus. (2022) found that CT dispositions and PS are significantly related to each other. Also, Ozgenel (2018) found that CT dispositions were a significant predictor of PS in his study. Similarly, Kutluca (2018) concluded that CT significantly predicted PS in his study aiming to investigate how some cognitive elements including CT affect PS skills. Besides, Orhan (2022) concluded that CT dispositions significantly predicted PS skills in his study. Besides, there are some other studies indicating CT and PS are closely related to each other (Kanbay & Okanli, 2017; Lismayani et al., 2017; Pereira, 2014; Song et al., 2022). Therefore, we can say that the results of previous research support this study.
According to sub-groups analyses, we can say that both CT skills and dispositions are strongly related to PS and this relationship is constant for all school levels and disciplines. This canbe seen as an important result because it shows us the close relationship between CT and PS at all school levels and disciplines. Also, it shows us that both CT skills and dispositions which are two main components of CT are significantly related to PS skills.
In short, it was found that there was a positive and medium relationship between CT and PS in this metaanalysis study. Previous literature indicated that CT is significantly associated with PS. The results of this metaanalysis study also support and contribute to this theoretical relationship. Therefore, it can be said that improvement of CT and PS skills should be aimed together in class because any improvement in one of these higher order thinking skills will also have positive effect on the other one.
LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR OTHER STUDIES
This study has several limitations. Firstly, it is hard to decide the direction of the relationship between two variables with correlation studies. This limitation can be seen as an obstacle that limits correlation studies. Therefore, this can be shown as the first limitation of this study which aimed to calculate a general ES by using the results of correlation studies in the literature. In other words, it is impossible to answer the question of whether the PS skills are high because of high CT skills or whether the CT skills are high because of high PS skills. So, other studies should be carried out to reveal the association between CT and PS more clearly. Secondly, we can say that this study may have method bias because just correlational studies were involved in the analysis. So, the results of experimental studies can also be used in future meta-analyses. Lastly, this study is limited in its scope because it only included the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Appendix A: Studies about the Relationship between Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Included in Meta-Analysis
Cansoy, R. & Tiirkoglu, M. E. (2017). Examining the relationship between pre-Service teachers' critical thinking disposition, problem solving skills and teacher self-efficacy. International Education Studies; 10(6), 23-35.
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Erdem, A. R. & Gene, G (2015). The relation between high school students' ability of solving problems and critical thinking. OPUS, 5(8), 32-44.
Erzincanli, S. & Zaybak, A. (2015). The relationship between critical thinking disposition and problem solving skills in nurses. International Refereed Journal of Nursing Researches, 2(3), 37-38.
Gulunay, Y. L (2016). An analysis of critical thinking and problem solving skills of students in physical education and sport teaching department according to several variables: The case of Karabuk University (Unpublished master thesis). Gazi University, Ankara.
Jeong, H. (2015). Critical thinking disposition, problem solving process, and empathy among Nursing Students. Advanced Science and Technology Letters, 103, 44-48.
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Karadeniz, A. (2016). The relationship between faculty of education students' argumentation skills and critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving skills. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology: Special Issue for INTE (December), 1057-1061.
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Alternate abstract:
Bu meta-analiz çalışmasının amacı 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 tarihleri arasında yapılmış çalışmaların sonuçlarını birleştirerek, eleştirel düşünme ile problem çözme arasındaki ilişkiyi (yön ve büyüklük) araştırmaktır. Arama terimlerini kullanarak bazı elektronik veri tabanları aracılığıyla ilgili literatürün araştırılmasının ardından elde edilen çalışmalar dahil edilme ölçütleri açısından iki farklı araştırmacı tarafından incelenmiş ve analize 43 çalışma dahil edilmiştir. Bu çalışmaların bazılarında birden fazla veri paylaşıldığı için, meta-analiz 49 veri ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Eleştirel düşünme ve problem çözme arasındaki ilişkinin etki büyüklüğü 0.483 olarak bulunmuştur ve bu değer eleştirel düşünme ile problem çözme arasında orta düzeyde bir ilişkinin olduğunu göstermektedir. Elde edilen bu etki büyüklüğü çalışmanın yapıldığı bölge, eleştirel düşünme türü, sınıf düzeyi, alan ve yayın türü alt gruplarına göre farklılaşmamaktadır. Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen sonuçlar, eleştirel düşünme ve problem çözmeye ilişkin teorik alt yapıyla ve geçmiş çalışmaların sonuçlarıyla örtüşmektedir.
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Mediating effects of self-directed learning on the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving in student nurses attending online classes: A cross-sectional descriptive study
Affiliations.
- 1 Kyungpook National University, College of Nursing, Research Institute of Nursing Science, Daegu, South Korea. Electronic address: [email protected]
- 2 Kyungpook National University, College of Nursing, Research Institute of Nursing Science, Daegu, South Korea. Electronic address: [email protected]
- 3 Kyungpook National University, College of Nursing, Research Institute of Nursing Science, Daegu, South Korea.
- PMID: 34972030
- DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2021.105227
Background: With the increased prevalence of online education due to the coronavirus 2019 pandemic and advancements in information technology, essential competencies, such as critical thinking, self-directed learning, and problem-solving ability, should be examined among student nurses taking online classes.
Objectives: Based on the findings of several studies suggesting that critical thinking does not affect problem-solving, this study aimed to examine the relationship among critical thinking, self-directed learning, and problem-solving in student nurses attending online classes, and to determine whether self-directed learning could mediate the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving.
Design: Cross-sectional, descriptive design.
Setting: K University in South Korea.
Participants: In total, 138 junior and senior nursing students were enrolled.
Methods: The critical thinking disposition scale for nursing students, self-directed learning scale, and problem-solving scale for college students were used to quantify participants' responses.
Results: Our results revealed significant positive correlations among critical thinking, self-directed learning, and problem-solving. Furthermore, self-directed learning (β = 0.78, p < 0.001) had a significant mediating effect on the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving ability (Z = 5.10, p < 0.001).
Conclusion: Developing and implementing appropriate self-directed learning programs are critical for improving problem-solving ability affected by critical thinking among student nurses engaged in online education.
Keywords: Critical thinking; Online education; Problem-solving; Self-directed learning; Student nurses.
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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The Relationship Between Pre-Service Teachers' Critical Thinking Tendencies and Problem Solving Skills
The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between pre-service teachers' critical thinking tendencies and problem solving skills. Besides, the other problem of the study is whether problem solving skills show significant difference according to the critical thinking tendency level and according to the compound effect of critical thinking tendency level with gender, department and grade level respectively. The sample of the study consists of 224 1st and 2nd grade pre-service teachers studying at Afyon Kocatepe University Education Faculty. The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory, which was developed by Facione and Giancarlo (1998) and adapted into Turkish by and Problem Solving Inventory, which was developed by Heppner and Petersen (1982) and adapted into Turkish by Şahin, are used as means of data collection in the study. According to the findings of the study, a significant and positive relationship between pre-service teachers' critical thinking...
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Algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving: exploring the relationship between computational thinking skills and academic performance
- Tenzin Doleck 1 ,
- Paul Bazelais 1 ,
- David John Lemay 1 ,
- Anoop Saxena 1 &
- Ram B. Basnet 2
Journal of Computers in Education volume 4 , pages 355–369 ( 2017 ) Cite this article
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The continued call for twenty-first century skills renders computational thinking a topical subject of study, as it is increasingly recognized as a fundamental competency for the contemporary world. Yet its relationship to academic performance is poorly understood. In this paper, we explore the association between computational thinking and academic performance. We test a structural model—employing a partial least squares approach—to assess the relationship between computational thinking skills and academic performance. Surprisingly, we find no association between computational thinking skills and academic performance (except for a link between cooperativity and academic performance). These results are discussed respecting curricular mandated instruction in higher-order thinking skills and the importance of curricular alignment between instructional objectives and evaluation approaches for successfully teaching and learning twenty-first-century skills.
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Doleck, T., Bazelais, P., Lemay, D.J. et al. Algorithmic thinking, cooperativity, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving: exploring the relationship between computational thinking skills and academic performance. J. Comput. Educ. 4 , 355–369 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-017-0090-9
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Received : 27 May 2017
Revised : 10 July 2017
Accepted : 07 August 2017
Published : 11 August 2017
Issue Date : December 2017
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-017-0090-9
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DOI: 10.17275/PER.16.SPI.2.4 Corpus ID: 150119934; The Relationship Between Pre-Service Teachers' Critical Thinking Tendencies and Problem Solving Skills @inproceedings{Ocak2016TheRB, title={The Relationship Between Pre-Service Teachers' Critical Thinking Tendencies and Problem Solving Skills}, author={Gurbuz Ocak and Eray Egmir}, year={2016} }
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